Cultural Interpretations

Some observers have interpreted elements of gender-variance in Filipino culture as analogues of expressions in the West. Whitam and Mathy, for example, after devoting enthusiastic attention to contemporary bakla and their prominence in decorative and theatrical professions, argue--with unrestrained zeal--that such cross-cultural manifestations are evidence for the biological basis of homosexuality.

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In an often-cited travel guide for gay men, Joseph Itiel--while acknowledging local ambivalence in sexual attitudes--nevertheless celebrates encounters with Filipino call boys and companions as indications of a characteristically "easy-going" sexual climate.

However, Filipino poet and essayist J. Neil Garcia warns against assuming parallels between the indigenous gender-crossed identity of the bakla/báyot and the Western concept of gayness. Observing that "gays get laughed at here a lot, but very rarely are they beaten up," he sees this phenomenon as an indication that gay men and lesbians are not taken seriously and thus not perceived as a threat to the social order.

For Garcia, a western-style gay movement has been difficult to establish in the Philippines because of an inherent "class conflict" between the effeminate bakla (who often work in pink-collar occupations) and their masculine partners. Because the latter escape any stigma associated with homosexuality, they do not have as great an investment in issues of gay rights. He cites the example of the first gay rally in the Manila area in June of 1994. While it received tolerant media attention, only 50 attended; weekend parties drew far greater numbers.

Garcia finds the Philippine situation a useful setting for examining the arguments between social constructionist (stemming from social conditions) versus essentialist (inherent) explanations of homosexuality. Dismissing Whitam and Mathy as "shamefully essentialist," Garcia sees the relationship of the bakla and his partner as grounded in indigenous patterns of gender assumptions, not easily categorized in Western terms. At the same time, he rejects a purely nativist approach, arguing that Philippine culture has undergone inevitable (and probably irrevocable) Westernization, making such arguments academic.

Eduardo Nierras thinks that neither constructionism nor essentialism alone provides an adequate vocabulary for Philippine gays. For gay male identity politics to have relevance in the Philippines, he notes, it must acknowledge (with respect to the West) their "different desires." Anthropologist Michael Tan also refutes the idea that the Philippines are an open society regarding homosexuality. He observes considerable ambivalence, with conservative right-wing values imported along with liberationist views.

In the Philippines as elsewhere, AIDS stigmatized gays but also galvanized community-building efforts, as it affects both bakla and their partners.

Filipina Lesbians

Recent anthologies, such as Anna Sarabia's Tibok: Heartbeat of the Filipino Lesbian (1998) and Santos and Villar's Woman to Woman (1994), have broken ground for expressions of contemporary lesbian culture. Unlike gay male writing, which devotes much attention to the traditional bakla, lesbian feminist prose in English has not invoked images of lakin-on, either as a romantic archetype or as a model for female assertiveness. Popular terms for lesbians such as "tomboy" and "t-bird" are obvious imports.

Many of the issues discussed by Filipina lesbians (visibility within the larger women's movement, family and religious pressures) will be familiar to western activists. The positions of lesbian organizations such as Can't Live In the Closet (CLIC) are phrased in terms linking them squarely within the contemporary global discourse on women's rights and economic emancipation.

As Aquino's and Macapagal-Arroyo's presidencies show, women have had important economic and political roles in Filipino society. However, as in other third-world countries, economic concerns often override other issues. Many Filipinas, regardless of orientation, face pressure to work abroad or marry well to help lift their families out of poverty.

Globalization of mass media influences has facilitated the importation of conservative religious views as well as liberal ones. For Filipino sexual minorities, preserving their traditional legacy on their own terms is an important challenge in the new century.

Asian American gays and lesbians voice richly multiple and diverse identities as they assert sexual autonomy in the face of stereotyping, homophobia, and racism.

The recent popularity of Asian films with English-language audiences has allowed Western audiences a glimpse of Asian gay and lesbian identities and gender ambiguities in high-profile queer films.

Cross-dressers have often been misunderstood and maligned, especially in societies with rigid gender roles.

Not limited to activity in the traditionally conceived political sphere, identity politics refers to activism, politics, theorizing, and other similar activities based on the shared experiences of members of a specific social group, often relying on shared experiences of oppression.

"Indigenous" is a concept important in the history of anthropology, particularly as it regards anthropology's treatment of same-sex sexual relations.

Sexual and gender diversity is widespread throughout the three zones of the Pacific Islands.

A vigorous gay and lesbian literature emerged in the Philippines in the last two decades of the twentieth century.

"Transgender" has become an umbrella term representing a political alliance between all gender variant people who do not conform to social norms for typical men and women and who suffer political oppression as a result.

The International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) is a worldwide federation of local and national groups dedicated to achieving equal rights for glbtq people.

U.S. Supreme Court Justice Frank Murphy had a distinguished and varied career in politics and law despite rumors of homosexuality that arose because of his close relationship with his trusted adviser and constant companion Edward Kemp.